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IMMUNOTHERAPY

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  Immunotherapy is a treatment that helps the body’s own immune system fight diseases such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infections. It works in two main ways: by boosting the immune system’s natural activity or by giving lab-made substances that help the immune system find and destroy abnormal cells. Examples include immune checkpoint inhibitors, which remove the “brakes” that stop immune cells from attacking cancer, and cellular therapies like CAR T-cell therapy, where a patient’s immune cells are modified to specifically target and kill cancer cells. How Immunotherapy Works Strengthening the Immune Response: It boosts the body’s natural immune cells, like T cells, so they can better recognize and attack cancer cells that might otherwise escape detection. Blocking Immune Evasion: Some cancer cells use special signals to “hide” from the immune system. Immunotherapy blocks these signals, allowing immune cells to find and destroy the cancer. Providing Immune Compone...
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PRO-INFLAMMATORY

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  Pro-inflammatory" refers to substances that trigger or enhance inflammation, the body’s natural response to infection or injury. These include molecules such as cytokines (e.g., TNF-α and IL-1β) and prostaglandins, which signal and activate immune cells to combat pathogens and support tissue repair. Although crucial for immediate defense, sustained or excessive pro-inflammatory activity can contribute to chronic inflammation and tissue damage. Examples of Pro-inflammatory Substances Cytokines: Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin-1 (IL-1), and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). Lipid Mediators: Prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are produced at the site of injury to promote inflammation. When Pro-inflammatory Responses Become Harmful Chronic Inflammation: If the inflammatory response lasts too long or stays overactive, it can cause chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. Tissue Damage: Instead of only targeting harmful ...
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Complement system

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  1. Pathogen enters the body A bacterium or virus invades. The body recognizes it as “foreign” through immune surveillance. 2. Complement system activates There are three pathways: classical, lectin, and alternative . All converge to activate C3 , which splits into: C3a → small fragment, acts as signal . C3b → binds to pathogen surface (opsonization, marks it for phagocytosis). Later, C5 is cleaved into C5a and C5b : C5b → starts formation of MAC (Membrane Attack Complex) , which can punch holes in pathogen. C5a → one of the most powerful chemotactic signals .   3. Chemotactic signal is released C3a and C5a diffuse around the infection site . These fragments act like a “chemical smell” for immune cells. They bind to receptors on neutrophils, macrophages, and other phagocytes.   4. Immune cells move toward the signal Neutrophils detect higher concentration of C5a and move up t...
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Activation of Yellow marrow into Red marrow

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 When the body senses a shortage of blood cells , it sends signals to reactivate the yellow bone marrow. 1. Detection of Blood Cell Shortage In conditions like anemia , injury , or infection , there are not enough red blood cells (RBCs) or other blood cells. The body detects low oxygen levels or low cell counts in the blood.  2. Signal Release The kidneys release a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO) . Cytokines (immune signaling proteins) are also released. These signals reach the bone marrow through the blood.  3. Stem Cell Activation in Yellow Marrow The yellow marrow contains mesenchymal stem cells (fat-storing stem cells). Under normal conditions, these produce fat. But in response to signals (like EPO and cytokines), they start converting into hematopoietic cells (blood-producing cells). 4. Fat Cells Decrease Fat cells in yellow marrow shrink or die off . More space opens up for blood-forming cells to grow. 5. Re...
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Complement system

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  Complement system is significant part of innate immune system.it contains 30 proteins in blood plasma and on the surface of the cell which will activate as a chain reaction (one will activate the next) Following are the major functions of complement system. Opsonization- label the microbes so that the phagocytic cells will get activated Chemotaxis-Attract the immune cells to the infected site Cell lysis- Forms a membrane attack complex (MAC) that can directly kill bacteria Clearance of Immune complexes- Helps to remove  antibody antigen complex from the body Pathways 1. Classical pathway classical pathway will be triggered by the antibodies and it comes under the part of adaptive immunity. Example If a person got infected with the measles virus . The body will start produced IgG antibodies against the virus. These antibodies bind to the virus. The classical pathway is activated to destroy the virus . classical pathway needs antibodies to induce the immune response . 2. Lect...
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Staphylokinase (Sak) and Streptokinase (SK)

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Staphylokinase (Sak)  and  Streptokinase (SK)  are fascinating enzymes with a dual identity—used both in medicine and by bacteria as virulence factors. Medically, streptokinase (produced by  Streptococcus pyogenes ) has long been used as a clot-dissolving drug in conditions like heart attacks, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism. It is cost-effective but has notable drawbacks, including a high risk of systemic bleeding due to its non-specific action and the potential to trigger immune reactions, especially upon repeated use. In contrast, staphylokinase (from  Staphylococcus aureus ) is still under clinical investigation but shows promise as a more clot-specific alternative, acting mainly at the site of clots and posing a lower bleeding risk. However, its clinical application is limited so far due to slower activation and ongoing trials. From a pathogenic standpoint, both enzymes help bac...
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VERMICOMPOSTING TECHNOLOGY- AN OVERVIEW (COURSE CONTENT)

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  ONLINE COURSE CONTENT DAY CHAPTER NUMBER TOPICS Day – 1 (14.10.2024) 1 History of Vermitechnology 2 Morphology of Earthworm 3 Ecological Distribution of Earthworm Day – 2 (15.10.2024) 4 Food Habit and Habitat of Earthworm 5 Role of Earthworm in Soil Ecosystem 6 Reproduction of Earthworm Day – 3 (16.10.2024) 7 Vermiculture 8 Method of Vermiculture for Phytophagous and Geophagous 9 Utility of Vermiculture Day – 4 (17.10.2024) 10 Vermicomposting 11 Advantages of Vermicompost over Chemical Input 12 Difference between Composting and Vermicomposting Day – 5 (18.10.2024) 13 Difference between Vermiculture and Vermicomposting ...
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